The descriptive text type
Based on perception in space. Impressionistic descriptions of landscapes or persons are often to be found in narratives such as novels or short stories. Example: About fifteen miles below Monterey, on the wild coast, the Torres family had their farm, a few sloping acres above the cliff that dropped to the brown reefs and to the hissing white waters of the ocean ...Narrative is basically story. A narrative text tells a story, and within this there are many kinds of narrative - comedy, mystery, romance, horror are some of the commoner types. A poem can also be a narrative if it tells a story rather than just describing something or trying to capture a mood. Purpose Description is used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person, place, object or event e.g. to: • describe a special place and explain why it is special • describe the most important person in your life • describe the animal's habitat in your report Descriptive writing is usually used to help a writer develop an aspect of their work, e.g. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc.
Features Description is a style of writing which can be useful for a variety of purposes: • to engage a reader's attention • to create characters • to set a mood or create an atmosphere • to bring writing to life.
Language • aims to show rather than tell the reader what something/someone is like • relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives and adverbs. • is focused and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main purpose of the description. • sensory description - what is heard, seen, smelt, felt, tasted. Precise use of adjectives, similes, metaphors to create images/pictures in the mind e.g. their noses were met with the acrid smell of rotting flesh. • strong development of the experience that "puts the reader there" focuses on key details, powerful verbs and precise nouns.
The narrative text type
Based on perception in time. Narration is the telling of a story; the succession of events is given in chronological order.Purpose The basic purpose of narrative is to entertain, to gain and hold a readers' interest. However narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change attitudes / social opinions e.g. soap operas and television dramas that are used to raise topical issues. Narratives sequence people/characters in time and place but differ from recounts in that through the sequencing, the stories set up one or more problems, which must eventually find a way to be resolved. The common structure or basic plan of narrative text is known as the "story grammar." Although there are numerous variations of the story grammar, the typical elements are: • Setting—when and where the story occurs. • Characters—the most important people or players in the story. • Initiating event—an action or occurrence that establishes a problem and/or goal. • Conflict/goal—the focal point around which the whole story is organized. • Events—one or more attempts by the main character(s) to achieve the goal or solve the problem. • Resolution—the outcome of the attempts to achieve the goal or solve the problem. • Theme—the main idea or moral of the story. The graphic representation of these story grammar elements is called a story map. The exact form and complexity of a map depends, of course, upon the unique structure of each narrative and the personal preference of the teacher constructing the map.
Types of Narrative There are many types of narrative. They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, personal experience. Features • Characters with defined personalities/identities. • Dialogue often included - tense may change to the present or the future. • Descriptive language to create images in the reader's mind and enhance the story.
Structure In a Traditional Narrative the focus of the text is on a series of actions: Orientation: (introduction) in which the characters, setting and time of the story are established. Usually answers who? When? Where? E.g. Mr. Wolf went out hunting in the forest one dark gloomy night.
Complication or problem: The complication usually involves the main character(s) (often mirroring the complications in real life).
Resolution: There needs to be a resolution of the complication. The complication may be resolved for better or worse/happily or unhappily. Sometimes there are a number of complications that have to be resolved. These add and sustain interest and suspense for the reader. Further more, when there is plan for writing narrative texts, the focus should be on the following characteristics: • Plot: What is going to happen? • Setting: Where will the story take place? When will the story take place? • Characterization: Who are the main characters? What do they look like? • Structure: How will the story begin? What will be the problem? How is the problem going to be resolved? • Theme: What is the theme / message the writer is attempting to communicate?
What is Descriptive Text? (part 3)
The Definition and Purpose of Descriptive TextDescriptive text is a text which say what a person or a thing is like. Its purpose is to describe and reveal a particular person, place, or thing.
The Generic Structure of Descriptive Text
Descriptive text has structure as below:
Identification; identifying the phenomenon to be described.
Description; describing the phenomenon in parts, qualities, or/and characteristics.
The Language Feature of Descriptive Text
Using attributive and identifying process.
Using adjective and classifiers in nominal group.
Using simple present tense
Purpose:
To describe a particular place/ thing/ person
Text Organization:
^ Identification (mention the special participant)
^ Description (mention the part, quality, and characteristics of subject being described)
Language Features:
^ The use of adjectives and compound adjectives.
e.g. :
- a five hundred seated football stadium.
- a beautiful ancient Roman opera house.
To describe a particular place/ thing/ person
Text Organization:
^ Identification (mention the special participant)
^ Description (mention the part, quality, and characteristics of subject being described)
Language Features:
^ The use of adjectives and compound adjectives.
e.g. :
- a five hundred seated football stadium.
- a beautiful ancient Roman opera house.
What is a report?
A report is a clearly structured document in which the writer identifies and examines issues, events, or findings of an investigation. Information obtained from research or from undertaking a project is delivered in a precise, concise writing style organised under a set of headings and sub-headings, which enable the reader to find data quickly. Graphs and tables can also be used to present data in the body of the report. Rather than commenting upon, comparing or evaluating ideas, as an essay does, a report frequently offers recommendations for action based on the information it has presented.
Report Structure
The structure of a formal report may vary between institutions, organisations, disciplines, units and even between lecturers. Reports are generally organised into sections using clear headings. A guide is provided on the next page to some of the headings that are commonly used in report writing. However, it is advisable that you ask your tutor or unit coordinator for clarification on the headings you must include in your report.
Report Headings
• Title: The title should tell the reader what the report is about.
• Acknowledgements: Briefly thank people who assisted you in compiling and writing up the information in the report
• Abstract, executive summary or synopsis: Many readers will only read this abstract so it needs to be informative, clear and brief. It provides an accurate, summary of the content of your report. The first sentence should articulate the main aim or question explored in your report. It should also outline your approach to the research, the main theories you applied, and the most important findings or results of your research.
• Table or list of contents: List the main sections/headings of the report and the page number on which they first appear. You should be able to generate this automatically from a styled MSWord document after you have completed the rest of the report.
• List of tables and illustrations: List any illustrations, graphs, charts, maps and the page number on which they first appear.
• Introduction: Set the report within a context of background information to illustrate the relevance or importance of your research. State the research aims: what is it your research will explore or demonstrate? Areas that may need to be covered in the introduction include:
- Background: The significance of the report and why it was commissioned.
- Purpose: State clearly and succinctly.
- Scope: What issues were covered, what were omitted.
- Research: How the data was obtained (e.g., interviews, surveys, literature review).
- Definition of terms: Specific terms or concepts that need to be clarified or defined.
• Literature review: Briefly summarise the most significant writings and major research findings in your field of investigation using APA format. Evaluate the major works/findings, and connect them to your own work, to show how you will draw upon or depart from the literature in your research.
• Materials and methods: State/define the methods you used to conduct your research (quantitative/qualitative; primary/secondary) and briefly provide a rationale for why this method was employed. Describe the conditions under which the research was conducted, number of participants, how they were selected, duration of the experiment etc. Identify any limitations in the methodology. If necessary also include any materials that were used.
• Results: Present the main findings of your research, using sub-headings where appropriate. You can order the results chronologically, or in any other appropriate way.
• Discussion of results: In this section analyse your findings at length, and provide an explanation for why those results were obtained. You may state whether or not the results confirmed your initial hypothesis, whether they were expected, and their possible significance.
Present your findings or arguments in a logical manner according to the subject matter. You may also present options, alternatives or responses to specific situations or issues.
• Conclusions: Summarise the purpose of the report, the methodology or theories employed, the key points or findings of your report and the significance of those findings. Don’t introduce any new points, or information or new sources. You can put recommendations here if you don’t intend to have a specific section for them.
• Recommendations: Suggest ways in which problems identified in the report may be resolved. They should be given in a numbered list and should be feasible and realistic. Information on how they can be implemented should also be given. There should be a logical relationship between the results and the recommendations, and all recommendations should clearly spring from previously discussed material.
• Reference List: List alphabetically the sources referred to in the body of the report. Use APA end-text referencing for sources quoted, paraphrased or referred to in-text. Only include sources mentioned in the report.
• Appendices: This is for material you consider important but that interferes with the flow of your discussion; for example, data, calculations, surveys, transcripts, graphics, maps, questionnaires, pamphlets etc.) referred to in-text. Number each item starting each item on a new page. Only include items mentioned in the report.
Writing your report
The report writing process is fairly similar to that of other types of written assessment. These are best explained as a series of steps.
1. Analyse the task carefully. Things that deserve consideration include the purpose of the report, the scope of the report (what aspects are to be covered), the limits of the report (e.g., information, word count, time frame), and the target audience.
2. Make an initial plan. This step involves the generation and selection of ideas aligned to the purpose of the report (i.e., working out what’s relevant and what’s not) and the systematic organisation of the ideas (establishing a coherent structure).
3. Find the information, read and make notes. This step involves the research process, which typically begins by employing effective search and information management strategies. Gather and collate information in accordance with your initial plan. Amend your plan to accommodate additional information that your research might yield (but keep a strong focus on the purpose and requirements of the assessment task). Determine whether you are going to include diagrams, graphs and illustrations. Decide which information or calculations could go into an appendix.
4. Write the first draft outline with headings. It is usually best to begin with the main section of the report.
5. Revise your draft until ready for submission.
Report checklist
• Have you determined what type of report to write?
• Have you determined the structure/headings of your report?
• Have you collected the materials/information you need to write the report?
• Have you drafted a timeline to complete the report on time?
• Have you written a draft and edited it carefully?
• Are all parts of the report, including appendices, completed?
• Have you submitted it on time and in the correct format?
• Have you kept a copy of your report?
References
Lichtenberger, E. O., Mather, N., Kaufmann, N. L., & Kaufmann, A. S. (2004). Essentials of assessment report writing. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Mort, S. (1992). Professional report writing. London: Grower Publishing Ltd.
Acknowledgements
This material was modified from source documents prepared by Marianne Cronin, Kaye Haddrill, Philip Marsh and Kuki Singh, ECU. Editor: Trevor Bennett
A report is a clearly structured document in which the writer identifies and examines issues, events, or findings of an investigation. Information obtained from research or from undertaking a project is delivered in a precise, concise writing style organised under a set of headings and sub-headings, which enable the reader to find data quickly. Graphs and tables can also be used to present data in the body of the report. Rather than commenting upon, comparing or evaluating ideas, as an essay does, a report frequently offers recommendations for action based on the information it has presented.
Report Structure
The structure of a formal report may vary between institutions, organisations, disciplines, units and even between lecturers. Reports are generally organised into sections using clear headings. A guide is provided on the next page to some of the headings that are commonly used in report writing. However, it is advisable that you ask your tutor or unit coordinator for clarification on the headings you must include in your report.
Report Headings
• Title: The title should tell the reader what the report is about.
• Acknowledgements: Briefly thank people who assisted you in compiling and writing up the information in the report
• Abstract, executive summary or synopsis: Many readers will only read this abstract so it needs to be informative, clear and brief. It provides an accurate, summary of the content of your report. The first sentence should articulate the main aim or question explored in your report. It should also outline your approach to the research, the main theories you applied, and the most important findings or results of your research.
• Table or list of contents: List the main sections/headings of the report and the page number on which they first appear. You should be able to generate this automatically from a styled MSWord document after you have completed the rest of the report.
• List of tables and illustrations: List any illustrations, graphs, charts, maps and the page number on which they first appear.
• Introduction: Set the report within a context of background information to illustrate the relevance or importance of your research. State the research aims: what is it your research will explore or demonstrate? Areas that may need to be covered in the introduction include:
- Background: The significance of the report and why it was commissioned.
- Purpose: State clearly and succinctly.
- Scope: What issues were covered, what were omitted.
- Research: How the data was obtained (e.g., interviews, surveys, literature review).
- Definition of terms: Specific terms or concepts that need to be clarified or defined.
• Literature review: Briefly summarise the most significant writings and major research findings in your field of investigation using APA format. Evaluate the major works/findings, and connect them to your own work, to show how you will draw upon or depart from the literature in your research.
• Materials and methods: State/define the methods you used to conduct your research (quantitative/qualitative; primary/secondary) and briefly provide a rationale for why this method was employed. Describe the conditions under which the research was conducted, number of participants, how they were selected, duration of the experiment etc. Identify any limitations in the methodology. If necessary also include any materials that were used.
• Results: Present the main findings of your research, using sub-headings where appropriate. You can order the results chronologically, or in any other appropriate way.
• Discussion of results: In this section analyse your findings at length, and provide an explanation for why those results were obtained. You may state whether or not the results confirmed your initial hypothesis, whether they were expected, and their possible significance.
Present your findings or arguments in a logical manner according to the subject matter. You may also present options, alternatives or responses to specific situations or issues.
• Conclusions: Summarise the purpose of the report, the methodology or theories employed, the key points or findings of your report and the significance of those findings. Don’t introduce any new points, or information or new sources. You can put recommendations here if you don’t intend to have a specific section for them.
• Recommendations: Suggest ways in which problems identified in the report may be resolved. They should be given in a numbered list and should be feasible and realistic. Information on how they can be implemented should also be given. There should be a logical relationship between the results and the recommendations, and all recommendations should clearly spring from previously discussed material.
• Reference List: List alphabetically the sources referred to in the body of the report. Use APA end-text referencing for sources quoted, paraphrased or referred to in-text. Only include sources mentioned in the report.
• Appendices: This is for material you consider important but that interferes with the flow of your discussion; for example, data, calculations, surveys, transcripts, graphics, maps, questionnaires, pamphlets etc.) referred to in-text. Number each item starting each item on a new page. Only include items mentioned in the report.
Writing your report
The report writing process is fairly similar to that of other types of written assessment. These are best explained as a series of steps.
1. Analyse the task carefully. Things that deserve consideration include the purpose of the report, the scope of the report (what aspects are to be covered), the limits of the report (e.g., information, word count, time frame), and the target audience.
2. Make an initial plan. This step involves the generation and selection of ideas aligned to the purpose of the report (i.e., working out what’s relevant and what’s not) and the systematic organisation of the ideas (establishing a coherent structure).
3. Find the information, read and make notes. This step involves the research process, which typically begins by employing effective search and information management strategies. Gather and collate information in accordance with your initial plan. Amend your plan to accommodate additional information that your research might yield (but keep a strong focus on the purpose and requirements of the assessment task). Determine whether you are going to include diagrams, graphs and illustrations. Decide which information or calculations could go into an appendix.
4. Write the first draft outline with headings. It is usually best to begin with the main section of the report.
5. Revise your draft until ready for submission.
Report checklist
• Have you determined what type of report to write?
• Have you determined the structure/headings of your report?
• Have you collected the materials/information you need to write the report?
• Have you drafted a timeline to complete the report on time?
• Have you written a draft and edited it carefully?
• Are all parts of the report, including appendices, completed?
• Have you submitted it on time and in the correct format?
• Have you kept a copy of your report?
References
Lichtenberger, E. O., Mather, N., Kaufmann, N. L., & Kaufmann, A. S. (2004). Essentials of assessment report writing. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Mort, S. (1992). Professional report writing. London: Grower Publishing Ltd.
Acknowledgements
This material was modified from source documents prepared by Marianne Cronin, Kaye Haddrill, Philip Marsh and Kuki Singh, ECU. Editor: Trevor Bennett
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