DETERMINERS

THE DISTRIBUTIVES
ALL, BOTH, HALF
EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER
These words refer to a group of people or things, and to individual members of the group. They show different ways of looking at the individuals within a group, and they express how something is distributed, shared or divided.

THE DISTRIBUTIVES ALL, BOTH, HALF
These words can be used in the following ways:

ALL +

1 2 3 4a 4b

- the my, your, etc. this, that these, those

Uncountable noun or Countable noun in the plural Uncountable noun Countable noun in the plural

 

Example:
1.	All cheese contains protein All children need affection
2.	All the people in the room were silent. Have you eaten all the bread?
3.	I've invited all my friends to the party. I've been waiting all my life for this opportunity.
4a.	Who's left all this paper on my desk?
4b.	Look at all those balloons!

BOTH +

1 2 3 4

- the my, your, etc. these, those

Countable noun in the plural

Example:
1.	Both children were born in Italy.
2.	He has crashed both (of) the cars.
3.	Both (of) my parents have fair hair.
4	You can take both (of) these books back to the library. See note below

HALF +

1 2 3 4

a the my, your, etc. this, that, these, those

Uncountable or countable noun

Example:
1.	I bought half a kilo of apples yesterday.
2.	You can have half (of) the cake. She gave me half (of) the apples.
3.	I've already given you half (of) my money. Half (of) his books were in French.
4	Half (of) these snakes are harmless You can take half (of) this sugar.

NOTE: All, both, half + OF: 'OF' must be added when followed by a pronoun:
All of you; both of us; half of them
It is also quite common to add it in most of the above situations except when there is no article (No.1 in all the tables above.)

THE DISTRIBUTIVES
EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER
These distributive words are normally used with singular nouns, and are placed before the noun.
Each, either and neither can be used with plural nouns but must be followed by 'of':
Each is a way of seeing the members of a group as individuals:

• Each child received a present.
• Each of the children received a present.

Every is a way of seeing a group as a series of members:

• Every child in the world deserves affection.

It can also express different points in a series, especially with time expressions:

• Every third morning John goes jogging.
• This magazine is published every other week.

Either and Neither are concerned with distribution between two things - either is positive, neither is negative:

• Which chair do you want? Either chair will do.
• I can stay at either hotel, they are both good
• There are two chairs here. You can take either of them.
• Neither chair is any good, they're both too small.
• Which chair do you want? Neither of them - they're both too small.

DIFFERENCE WORDS
OTHER, ANOTHER
These words refer to something different, remaining, or additional.
They are placed before the noun.
Another is used with singular nouns, other with singular or plural.

• There are other jobs you could try.
• Where's the other packet of cereals?
• Is there any other bread?
• Have another cup of tea.

QUESTION WORDS
WHICH, WHAT, WHOSE
In questions, these words ask which thing or person is being referred to. They are placed before the noun.

• Which dress are you going to wear tonight?
• What colour is your dress?
• Whose car are you going to use?

DEFINING WORDS
WHICH AND WHOSE
In a statement, these words define or explain which thing or person is referred to:
Example:

• He went back to the house. (Which house?) The house which stood on the corner. = He went back to the house which stood on the corner.
  
  
• I saw the man. (Which man?) The man whose car you damaged. = I saw the man whose car you damaged.

More examples:

• He couldn't remember which film he had seen.
• That's the man whose wife works in my office.
• Tell me which coffee you like.
• The woman whose dog bit you is at the door.

PRE-DETERMINERS
SUCH, WHAT, RATHER, QUITE
These words are normally placed before the indefinite article.
Such and what are often used to express surprise or other emotions:
Examples:
a. What a lovely day!
b. She's such a lovely woman!
c. What an incredible film!
d. He's such a fantastic guitarist!
Rather and quite are 'commenting' words, referring to the degree of a particular quality. They can express disappointment, pleasure, or other emotions, and are used before a/an + adjective + noun:
Examples:
a. It's rather a small car. (= I'm a bit disappointed because it's small)
b. It was quite a nice day.(= I was agreeably surprised.)
c. He's had quite a bad accident. (= I'm worried)
d. I've just met rather a nice man. (= I'm pleased)

DETERMINERS
FUNCTION AND CLASSES OF DETERMINERS
Function
Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to. The word 'people' by itself is a general reference to some group of human beings. If someone says 'these people', we know which group they are talking about, and if they say 'a lot of people' we know how big the group is.

Classes of Determiners
There are several classes of determiners:
Definite and Indefinite articles
the, a, an Demonstratives
this, that, these, those
Possessives
my, your, his, her, its, our, their
Quantifiers
a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc.
Numbers
one, ten, thirty, etc.
Distributives
all, both, half, either, neither, each, every
Difference words
other, another
Question words
Which, what, whose
Defining words
which, whose
The following words are pre-determiners. They go before determiners, such as articles: such and what, half, rather, quite

DEFINITE ARTICLE and INDEFINITE ARTICLE

DEFINITE ARTICLE
THE
Articles in English are invariable. That is, they do not change according to the gender or number of the noun they refer to, e.g. the boy, the woman, the children
'The' is used:
1. to refer to something which has already been mentioned.

Example: An elephant and a mouse fell in love.
The mouse loved the elephant's long trunk,
and the elephant loved the mouse's tiny nose.

2. when both the speaker and listener know what is being talked about, even if it has not been mentioned before.

Example: 'Where's the bathroom?'
'It's on the first floor.'

3. in sentences or clauses where we define or identify a particular person or object:

Examples: The man who wrote this book is famous.
'Which car did you scratch?' 'The red one.
My house is the one with a blue door.'

4. to refer to objects we regard as unique:

Examples: the sun, the moon, the world

5. before superlatives and ordinal numbers: (see Adjectives)

Examples: the highest building, the first page, the last chapter.

6. with adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people:

Examples: the Japanese (see Nouns - Nationalities), the old

7. with names of geographical areas and oceans:

Examples: the Caribbean, the Sahara, the Atlantic

8. with decades, or groups of years:
Example: she grew up in the seventies

INDEFINITE ARTICLE
A / AN
Use 'a' with nouns starting with a consonant (letters that are not vowels),
'an' with nouns starting with a vowel (a,e,i,o,u)
Examples:

A boy
An apple
A car
An orange
A house
An opera

NOTE:
An before an h mute - an hour, an honour.
A before u and eu when they sound like 'you': a european, a university, a unit
The indefinite article is used:

• to refer to something for the first time:
  An elephant and a mouse fell in love.
  Would you like a drink?
  I've finally got a good job.
• to refer to a particular member of a group or class

Examples:

• with names of jobs:
  John is a doctor.
  Mary is training to be an engineer.
  He wants to be a dancer.
• with nationalities and religions:
  John is an Englishman.
  Kate is a Catholic.
• with musical instruments:
  Sherlock Holmes was playing a violin when the visitor arrived.
  (BUT to describe the activity we say "He plays the violin.")
• with names of days:
  I was born on a Thursday

 

• to refer to a kind of, or example of something:
  the mouse had a tiny nose
  the elephant had a long trunk
  it was a very strange car
• with singular nouns, after the words 'what' and 'such':
  What a shame!
  She's such a beautiful girl.
• meaning 'one', referring to a single object or person:
  I'd like an orange and two lemons please.
  The burglar took a diamond necklace and a valuable painting.
  

Notice also that we usually say a hundred, a thousand, a million.

NOTE: that we use 'one' to add emphasis or to contrast with other numbers:
I don't know one person who likes eating elephant meat.
We've got six computers but only one printer.

EXCEPTIONS TO USING THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
There is no article:

• with names of countries (if singular)
  Germany is an important economic power.
  He's just returned from Zimbabwe.
  (But: I'm visiting the United States next week.)

• with the names of languages
  French is spoken in Tahiti.
  English uses many words of Latin origin.
  Indonesian is a relatively new language.

• with the names of meals.
  Lunch is at midday.
  Dinner is in the evening.
  Breakfast is the first meal of the day.

• with people's names (if singular):
  John's coming to the party.
  George King is my uncle.
  (But: we're having lunch with the Morgans tomorrow.)

• with titles and names:
  Prince Charles is Queen Elizabeth's son.
  President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.
  Dr. Watson was Sherlock Holmes' friend.
  (But: the Queen of England, the Pope.)

• After the 's possessive case:
  His brother's car.
  Peter's house.

• with professions:
  Engineering is a useful career.
  He'll probably go into medicine.

• with names of shops:
  I'll get the card at Smith's.
  Can you go to Boots for me?

• with years:
  1948 was a wonderful year.
  Do you remember 1995?

• With uncountable nouns:
  Rice is the main food in Asia.
  Milk is often added to tea in England.
  War is destructive.

• with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands:
  Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in Alaska.
  She lives near Lake Windermere.
  Have you visited Long Island?

• with most names of towns, streets, stations and airports:
  Victoria Station is in the centre of London.
  Can you direct me to Bond Street?
  She lives in Florence.
  They're flying from Heathrow.

• in some fixed expressions, for example:

by car by train by air on foot on holiday on air (in broadcasting) THE DEMONSTRATIVES THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE 1. Function The demonstratives this, that, these, those ,show where an object or person is in relation to the speaker. This (singular) and these (plural) refer to an object or person near the speaker. That (singular) and those (plural) refer to an object or person further away. It can be a physical closeness or distance as in: Who owns that house? (distant) Is this John's house? (near) Or it can be a psychological distance as in: That's nothing to do with me.. (distant) This is a nice surprise! (near) 2. Position a) Before the noun. b) Before the word 'one'. c) Before an adjective + noun. d) Alone when the noun is 'understood'. Examples: This car looks cleaner than that one. This old world keeps turning round Do you remember that wonderful day in June? I'll never forget this. THE POSSESSIVES Possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives show who the thing belongs to. PERSON ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS 1st (I) my mine 2nd (you) your yours 3rd (he) his his   (she) her hers   (it) it its Plural     1st (we) our ours 2nd (you) your yours 3rd (they) their theirs NOTE: In English, possessive adjectives and pronouns refer to the possessor, not the object or person that is possessed. Example: Jane's brother is married to John's sister. Her brother is married to his sister. Examples: a. Peter and his sister. b. Jane and her father. c. Do you know where your books are? d. Is this their picnic? No, it is ours. e. I think this is your passport. Yes, it is mine. THE QUANTIFIERS Quantifiers are adjectives and adjectival phrases that give approximate answers to the questions "How much?" and "How many?" Example: I've got a little money. I've got a lot of friends. Quantifiers with countable and uncountable nouns A few and few, a little and little Some and any Compound nouns made with SOME, ANY and NO Graded Quantifiers Enough + Noun

at school at work at University in church in prison in bed

THE QUANTIFIERS
Quantifiers with countable
and uncountable nouns
Adjectives and adjectival phrases that describe quantity are shown below. Some can only go with countable nouns (friends, cups, people), and some can only go with uncountable nouns (sugar, tea, money, advice). The words in the middle column can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.

Only with uncountable nouns	With uncountable and countable nouns	Only with countable nouns
How much?	How much? or How many?	How many?
a little	no/none	a few
a bit (of)	not any	a number (of)
-	some (any)	several
a great deal of	a lot of	a large number of
a large amount of	plenty of	a great number of
-	lots of	-
+ noun

Note: much and many are used in negative and question forms.
Example:

• How much money have you got?
• How many cigarettes have you smoked?
• There's not much sugar in the cupboard.
• There weren't many people at the concert.

They are also used with too, (not) so, and (not) as :There were too many people at the concert - we couldn't see the band.
It's a problem when there are so many people.
There's not so much work to do this week.
In positive statements, we use a lot of:

• I've got a lot of work this week.
• There were a lot of people at the concert

THE QUANTIFIERS
A few and few, a little and little
These expressions show the speaker's attitude towards the quantity he/she is referring to.
A few (for countable nouns) and a little (for uncountable nouns) describe the quantity in a positive way:

• "I've got a few friends" (= maybe not many, but enough)
• "I've got a little money" (= I've got enough to live on)

Few and little describe the quantity in a negative way:

• Few people visited him in hospital (= he had almost no visitors)
• He had little money (= almost no money)

THE QUANTIFIERS
Some and Any
Some and any are used with countable and uncountable nouns, to describe an indefinite or incomplete quantity.
Some is used in positive statements:

• I had some rice for lunch
• He's got some books from the library.

It is also used in questions where we are sure about the answer:

• Did he give you some tea? (= I'm sure he did.)
• Is there some fruit juice in the fridge? (= I think there is)

Some is used in situations where the question is not a request for information, but a method of making a request, encouraging or giving an invitation:

• Could I have some books, please?
• Why don't you take some books home with you?
• Would you like some books?

Any is used in questions and with not in negative statements:

• Have you got any tea?
• He didn't give me any tea.
• I don't think we've got any coffee left.

More examples:

SOME in positive sentences.
a. I will have some news next week.
b. She has some valuable books in her house.
c. Philip wants some help with his exams.
d. There is some butter in the fridge.
e. We need some cheese if we want to make a fondue.
SOME in questions:
a. Would you like some help?
b. Will you have some more roast beef?
ANY in negative sentences
a. She doesn't want any kitchen appliances for Christmas.
b. They don't want any help moving to their new house.
c. No, thank you. I don't want any more cake.
d. There isn't any reason to complain.
ANY in interrogative sentences
a. Do you have any friends in London?
b. Have they got any children?
c. Do you want any groceries from the shop?
d. Are there any problems with your work?

THE QUANTIFIERS
Compound nouns made with SOME, ANY and NO

Some +	-thing	-body	-one	-where
Any +
No +

Compound nouns with some- and any- are used in the same way as some and any.
Positive statements:

• Someone is sleeping in my bed.
• He saw something in the garden.
• I left my glasses somewhere in the house.

Questions:

• Are you looking for someone? (= I'm sure you are)
• Have you lost something? (= I'm sure you have)
• Is there anything to eat? (real question)
• Did you go anywhere last night?

Negative statements:

• She didn't go anywhere last night.
• He doesn't know anybody here.

NOTICE that there is a difference in emphasis between nothing, nobody etc. and not ... anything, not ... anybody:

• I don't know anything about it. (= neutral, no emphasis)
• I know nothing about it (= more emphatic, maybe defensive)

More examples:
SOMETHING, SOMEBODY, SOMEWHERE
a. I have something to tell you.
b. There is something to drink in the fridge.
c. He knows somebody in New York
d. Susie has somebody staying with her.
e. They want to go somewhere hot for their holidays.
f. Keith is looking for somewhere to live.
ANYBODY, ANYTHING, ANYWHERE
a. Is there anybody who speaks English here?
b. Does anybody have the time?
c. Is there anything to eat?
d. Have you anything to say?
e. He doesn't have anything to stay tonight.
f. I wouldn't eat anything except at Maxim's.
NOBODY, NOTHING, NOWHERE
a. There is nobody in the house at the moment
b. When I arrived there was nobody to meet me.
c. I have learnt nothing since I began the course.
d. There is nothing to eat.
e. There is nowhere as beautiful as Paris in the Spring.
f. Homeless people have nowhere to go at night.
ANY can also be used in positive statements to mean 'no matter which', 'no matter who', 'no matter what':
Examples:
a. You can borrow any of my books.
b. They can choose anything from the menu.
c. You may invite anybody to dinner, I don't mind.

THE QUANTIFIERS
Graded Quantifiers
They function like comparatives and hold a relative position on a scale of increase or decrease.

INCREASE From 0% to 100%
With plural countable nouns:
many	more	most
With uncountable nouns:
much	more	most
DECREASE From 100% to 0%
With plural countable nouns:
few	fewer	fewest
With uncountable nouns:
little	less	least

Examples:

• There are many people in England, more in India, but the most people live in China.
• Much time and money is spent on education, more on health services but the most is spent on national defence.
• Few rivers in Europe are not polluted.
• Fewer people die young now than in the seventeenth century.
• The country with the fewest people per square kilometre must be Australia.
• Scientists have little hope of finding a complete cure for cancer before the year 2,000.
• She had less time to study than Paul but had better results.
• Give that dog the least opportunity and it will bite you.

THE QUANTIFIERS
Enough + Noun
Enough is placed before the noun, to indicate the quantity required or necessary:

• There is enough bread for lunch.
• She has enough money.

Enough is also used with adjectives and adverbs - see these sections.

• We didn't have enough time to visit London Bridge.
• Are there enough eggs to make an omelette?
• Richard has enough talent to become a singing star.

THE QUANTIFIERS
NUMBERS
The cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) are adjectives referring to quantity, and the ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) refer to distribution.

Number	Ordinal	Cardinal
1	first	one
2	two	second
3	three	third
4	four	fourth
5	five	fifth
6	six	sixth
7	seven	seventh
8	eight	eighth
9	nine	ninth
10	ten	tenth
11	eleven	eleventh
12	twelve	twelfth
13	thirteen	thirteenth
14	fourteen	fourteenth
15	fifteen	fifteenth
16	sixteen	sixteenth
17	seventeen	seventeenth
18	eighteen	eighteenth
19	nineteen	nineteenth
20	twenty	twentieth
21	twenty-one	twenty-first
22	twenty-two	twenty-second
23	twenty-three	twenty-third
24	twenty-four	twenty-fourth
25	twenty-five	twenty-fifth
26	twenty-six	twenty-sixth
27	twenty-seven	twenty-seventh
28	twenty-eight	twenty-eighth
29	twenty-nine	twenty-ninth
30	thirty	thirtieth
31	thirty-one	thirty-first
40	forty	fortieth
50	fifty	fiftieth
60	sixty	sixtieth
70	seventy	seventieth
80	eighty	eightieth
90	ninety	ninetieth
100	one hundred	hundredth
500	five hundred	five hundredth
1,000	one thousand	thousandth
100,000	one hundred thousand	hundred thousandth
1,000,000	one million	millionth

Examples:

• There are twenty-five people in the room.
• He was the fourteenth person to win the award since 1934.
• Six hundred thousand people were left homeless after the earthquake.
• I must have asked you twenty times to be quiet.
• He went to Israel for the third time this year.

Fractions and decimals

Said	Written	Said
half	0.5	point five
a quarter	0.25	point two five
three quarters	0.75	point seven five

Percentages

Written	Said
25%	twenty five percent
50%	fifty percent
75%	seventy five percent
100%	a/one hundred percent

Units

Written	Said
$1,200	one thousand two hundred dollars
£16,486	sixteen thousand four hundred and eighty-six pounds
545kms	five hundred and forty-five kilometres
$25.35	twenty-five dollars thirty-five

Years

Written	Said
1988	Nineteen eighty-eight
1864	Eighteen sixty-four
1999	Nineteen ninety-nine

How to say '0'

nought	used in mathematical expressions and decimals: 'nought times three equals nought' 0.3 = 'nought point three' (or 'point three') 0.03 = 'point nought three'
zero	used in scientific expressions, especially temperatures: 20oC = minus twenty degrees or twenty degrees below zero also used to mean 'the lowest point': 'The heavy rain reduced visibility to zero'
'o' (the letter)	used in telephone numbers: 0171 390 0062 = 'o one seven one three nine o double o six two'
nil/nothing	used to express the score in games such as football: 2 - 0 = 'two nil' or 'two nothing'

VERBAL

Definition:
In traditional grammar, a verb form that functions in a sentence as a noun or a modifier rather than as a verb.
Verbals include infinitives, gerunds, and participles (see below for definitions and examples).
Unlike ordinary verbs, verbals are not inflected for person and tense.

Types and Examples of Verbals:

• Infinitives
  Verbals (usually preceded by the particle to) that function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
  "We can only learn to love by loving."
  (Iris Murdoch)
• Gerunds
  Verbals that end in -ing and function as nouns.
  "We can only learn to love by loving."
  (Iris Murdoch)
• Participles
  Verbals that function as adjectives.
  "The eagles swooped and hovered, leaning on the air, and swung close together, feinting and screaming with delight."
  (N. Scott Momaday, House Made of Dawn)

Observations:

• "To write complete sentences, rather than sentence fragments, use verbs or verb phrases, not just verbals. Although a verbal is formed from a verb, it is a part of speech that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb, not as a verb."
  (Grammar for Writing. Sadlier-Oxford, 2000)
• "Verbals, such as known or swimming or to go, are verb forms that act as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. A verbal can never serve as a sentence's main verb unless it is used with one or more auxiliary verbs (has known, should be swimming)."
  (Laurie G. Kirszner and Stephen R. Mandell, The Concise Wadsworth Handbook, 2nd ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2008)
• "Because they are derived from verbs, verbals retain some of the abilities of verbs. They can carry objects or take modifiers and complements. At the same time, verbals possess abilities unknown to the typical verb, the abilities of other parts of speech. In this way, verbals may perform the duties of two parts of speech simultaneously.
  
  "In spite of these new powers, the verbal must give up one of the abilities of its original verb form. No verbal can assume the role of a true verb to express action or condition in a sentence."
  (Michael Strumpf and Auriel Douglas, The Grammar Bible. Owl Books, 2004)

The Top 24 Grammatical Terms Basic Grammatical Terms That We Should Have Learned in School

ctive and passive voice, direct and indirect objects, compound and complex sentences: the odds are good that you've heard these terms before. Some you still remember, and others--well, others may not be quite as familiar to you as they used to be. If you're in the mood to brush up on your grammar, this page is for you: brief definitions and examples of the two dozen most common grammatical terms.

How to Review the Top 24 Grammatical Terms

If you want to learn more about any of the following terms, click on the word to visit a glossary page. There you will find an expanded definition of the term and several more examples--along with its etymology (which shows where the term came from) and links to articles that examine related grammatical concepts in more detail. After reviewing the terms, you should be ready for the next step: putting these concepts to work in Basic Sentence Structures.
A word of caution: learning (or relearning) these grammatical terms won't automatically make you a better writer. But reviewing these terms should deepen your understanding of how words are arranged in English to create sentences. And that understanding should eventually help you to become a more versatile and confident writer.

The Top 24 Grammatical Terms

1. Active Voice

The verb form in which the subject of the sentence performs or causes the action expressed by the verb. Contrast with Passive Voice. Example: "A census taker once tried to test me. I ate his liver with some fava beans and a nice Chianti." (Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, 1991)

2. Adjective

The part of speech (or word class) that modifies a noun or a pronoun. See also: Adding Adjectives and Adverbs to the Basic Sentence Unit. Example: "Send this pestilent, traitorous, cow-hearted, yeasty codpiece to the brig." (Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, 2007)

3. Adverb

The part of speech that modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb. See also: Adding Adjectives and Adverbs to the Basic Sentence Unit. Example: "There I was, standing there in the church, and for the first time in my whole life I realized I totally and utterly loved one person." (Charles to Carrie in Four Weddings and a Funeral, 1994)

4. Clause

A group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause may be either a sentence (independent clause) or a sentence-like construction included within another sentence (dependent clause). Example: "Don't ever argue with the big dog [independent clause], because the big dog is always right [dependent clause]." (Deputy Marshal Samuel Gerard in The Fugitive, 1993]

5. Complex Sentence

A sentence that contains at least one independent clause and one dependent clause. Example: "Don't ever argue with the big dog [independent clause], because the big dog is always right [dependent clause]." (Deputy Marshal Samuel Gerard in The Fugitive, 1993]

6. Compound Sentence

A sentence that contains at least two independent clauses, often joined by a conjunction. Example: "I can't compete with you physically [independent clause], and you're no match for my brains [independent clause]." (Vizzini in The Princess Bride, 1987)

7. Conjunction

The part of speech that serves to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. See also: coordinating conjunction, subordinating conjunction, correlative conjunction, and conjunctive adverb. Example: "I can't compete with you physically, and you're no match for my brains." (Vizzini in The Princess Bride, 1987)

8. Declarative Sentence

A sentence that makes a statement. Example: "A census taker once tried to test me. I ate his liver with some fava beans and a nice Chianti." (Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, 1991)

9. Dependent Clause

A group of words that begins with a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction. A dependent clause has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence. Also known as a subordinate clause. See also: Subordination with Adjective Clauses and Building Sentences with Adverb Clauses. Example: "Don't ever argue with the big dog [independent clause], because the big dog is always right [dependent clause]." (Deputy Marshal Samuel Gerard in The Fugitive, 1993]

10. Direct Object

A noun or pronoun that receives the action of a transitive verb. Example: "All my life I had to fight. I had to fight my daddy. I had to fight my uncles. I had to fight my brothers." (Sophia in The Color Purple, 1985)

11. Exclamatory Sentence

A sentence that expresses strong feelings by making an exclamation. Example: "God! Look at that thing! You would've gone straight to the bottom!" (Jack Dawson looking at Rose's ring in Titanic, 1997)

12. Imperative Sentence

A sentence that gives advice or instructions or that expresses a request or a command. Example: "Send this pestilent, traitorous, cow-hearted, yeasty codpiece to the brig." (Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, 2007)

(Concluded on page two)

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Grammar Basics

• Basic Sentence Structures
• Basic Parts of Speech
• Basic Rules of Punctuation

About Grammar

• What Is Grammar?
• Why Does Grammar Matter?
• Grammar & Usage Advice Sites

Figures of Speech

• Top 20 Figures of Speech
• Tool Kit for Rhetorical Analysis
• Figures, Tropes, and Other Rhetorical Terms

Related Articles

• Sentence Structures in English - Basic Sentence Structures
• Bringing It Up a Notch: Clauses - Grammar and Style
• dependent clause - definition and examples of dependent clause
• independent clause - definition and examples of independent clause
• Complex Sentences - An English Grammar - W. M. Baskervill

BASIC GRAMMAR

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There are many different ways of organizing words into sentences. (Or we might say, Words can be organized into sentences in many different ways.) For this reason, describing how to put a sentence together isn't as easy as explaining how to bake a cake or assemble a model plane. There are no easy recipes, no step-by-step instructions. But that doesn't mean that crafting an effective sentence depends on magic or good luck.
Experienced writers understand that the basic parts of a sentence can be combined and arranged in countless ways. So as we work to improve our writing, it's important to understand what these basic structures are and how to use them effectively.
We'll begin by introducing the traditional parts of speech and the most common sentence structures. For practice in shaping these words and structures into strong sentences, follow the links to the practice exercises, examples, and expanded discussions.

1) The Parts of Speech

One way to begin studying basic sentence structures is to consider the traditional parts of speech (also called word classes): nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and interjections. Except for interjections ("ouch!"), which have a habit of standing alone, and articles (a, an, the), which appear in front of nouns, the parts of speech come in many varieties and may show up just about anywhere in a sentence. To know for sure what part of speech a word is, we have to look not only at the word itself but also at its meaning, position, and use in a sentence.
More:

• The Parts of Speech
• What Is a Noun?
• What Is a Verb?
• What Is a Word Class?

2) Subjects, Verbs, and Objects

The basic parts of a sentence are the subject, the verb, and (often, but not always) the object. The subject is usually a noun--a word that names a person, place, or thing. The verb (or predicate) usually follows the subject and identifies an action or a state of being. An object receives the action and usually follows the verb.

WHAT IS GRAMMAR?

Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language. It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression available in English. And it can help everyone--not only teachers of English, but teachers of anything, for all teaching is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with meaning.
(David Crystal, "In Word and Deed," TES Teacher, April 30, 2004)

It is necessary to know grammar, and it is better to write grammatically than not, but it is well to remember that grammar is common speech formulated. Usage is the only test.
(William Somerset Maugham, The Summing Up, 1938)

Hear the word glamour and what comes to mind? Celebrities, most likely--limousines and red carpets, swarms of paparazzi and more money than sense. But, odd as it may sound, glamour comes directly from a decidedly less glamorous word--grammar.
During the Middle Ages, grammar was often used to describe learning in general, including the magical, occult practices popularly associated with the scholars of the day. People in Scotland pronounced grammar as "glam-our," and extended the association to mean magical beauty or enchantment.
In the 19th century, the two versions of the word went their separate ways, so that our study of English grammar today may not be quite as glamorous as it used to be.
But the question remains: what is grammar?

Descriptive Grammar and Prescriptive Grammar

In our Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms, you’ll find two definitions of grammar:

1. The systematic study and description of a language.
2. A set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word structures of a language, usually intended as an aid to the learning of that language.

Descriptive grammar (definition #1) refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar (definition #2) refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used.
Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. (See What Is a SNOOT?)

Interfacing With Grammar

To illustrate these different approaches, let's consider the word interface. The descriptive grammarian would note, among other things, that the word is made up of a common prefix (inter-) and a root word (face) and that it’s currently used as both a noun and a verb. The prescriptive grammarian, however, would be more interested in deciding whether or not it is “correct” to use interface as a verb.
Here's how the prescriptive Usage Panel at The American Heritage Dictionary, 4th edition passes judgment on interface:

The Usage Panel has been unable to muster much enthusiasm for the verb. Thirty-seven percent of Panelists accept it when it designates the interaction between people in the sentence The managing editor must interface with a variety of freelance editors and proofreaders. But the percentage drops to 22 when the interaction is between a corporation and the public or between various communities in a city. Many Panelists complain that interface is pretentious and jargony.

Similarly, Bryan A. Garner, author of The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style, dismisses interface as "jargonmongers' talk."
By their nature, all popular style and usage guides are prescriptive, though to varying degrees: some are fairly tolerant of deviations from standard English; others can be downright cranky. The most irascible critics are sometimes called "the Grammar Police."
Though certainly different in their approaches to language, both kinds of grammar--descriptive and prescriptive--are useful to students.

The Value of Studying Grammar

The study of grammar all by itself will not necessarily make you a better writer. But by gaining a clearer understanding of how our language works, you should also gain greater control over the way you shape words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs. In short, studying grammar may help you become a more effective writer.
Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.
Prescriptive grammarians prefer giving practical advice about using language: straightforward rules to help us avoid making errors. The rules may be over-simplified at times, but they are meant to keep us out of trouble--the kind of trouble that may distract or even confuse our readers.
About Grammar & Composition attempts to integrate these two approaches to grammar--or, at the least, present them side by side. For instance, our discussion of the Basic Parts of Speech is primarily descriptive, while our lesson on Correcting Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement is obviously prescriptive.
Thus, the goal of this site is twofold: first, to deepen your understanding of the ways that the English language operates, and second, to serve as a practical guide as you work to become a more confident and effective writer. We look forward to hearing your suggestions on how we might do a better job of meeting both these goals.
NEXT:

• Ten Types of Grammar
• Why Does Grammar Matter?
• Basic Sentence Structures

Grammar & Composition: Starting Points

• Basic Sentence Structures
• The Basic Parts of Speech
• Grammar & Composition Forum

Varieties of Grammar

• Ten Types of Grammar
• Mental Grammar
• Universal Grammar

Grammar Questions & Answers

• What Is a Snoot?
• Why Does Grammar Matter?
• What Is the Difference Between Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar?

More in Words & Sentences

• Why Does Grammar Matter?

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